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The Monthly Edition Of The k-Byte Newsletter |
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| v. 24, n. 4 April 2007 | Users Helping Users | ||
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The Monthly Edition Of The k-Byte Newsletter |
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| v. 24, n. 4 April 2007 | Users Helping Users | ||
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Contents 1 What Does a Cache Do for a Computer - Brian K. Lewis 2 About k-Byte 4 Case of the Black Screen - Rob Rice 6 Calendar of Events 7 April/May Calendars 8 Tip of the Month 9 PC World Says Farewell to Floppy 10 About Trading Post 12 Map to Meeting Place 12 FRPCUG Contacts What Does a Cache Do for a Computer? by Brian K. Lewis, Ph.D. Member of the Sarasota Personal Computer Users Group, Inc., http://www.spcug.org/ A cache (pronounced "cash") is a form of memory storage that generally operates faster than RAM memory or the time required to access a hard drive. The cache is smaller, faster memory that stores copies of the data from the most frequently used memory locations. Computer processors (CPUs) utilize both internal and external caches. You will also find references in the specifications of hard drives, CD & DVD drives to caches of various sizes. In order to see how these caches benefit computer operations we'll look at the operation of the internal caches on CPUs. Before looking at the cache function, you need to have some understanding of the architecture of a CPU. Much of the internal structure of a CPU is composed of registers that hold small bits of information and also can be used in manipulating information. As one example, the Intel Pentium 4 processors have 128 registers. Some registers hold instructions, others hold data, others have memory addresses and others are arithmetic manipulators. The instructions are found in the program code and they tell the processor what to do with the data. The processor loads instructions from memory and then loads data that is manipulated based on the instructions. So the registers hold data to be processed, the results of calculations, or addresses pointing to the location of other data. The processor can act on data in registers almost instantaneously. However, the registers are far too small to hold all the data required. Instead, instructions and data have to be read from or written to RAM. If the program code were always loaded directly from memory and all the data were written directly back to memory and then to the hard drive, the overall process would be quite slow compared to what we normally see. It is the use of caches that greatly speeds up the total process so the processor isn't stalled waiting for either instructions or data. The fastest cache is the one that is part of the processor and is referred to as the L1 cache. It can operate at the same speed as the processor. So if you have a 30-gigahertz (GHz) CPU, the L1 cache also operates at 30 GHz. Thus data can be accessed in one clock cycle. This cache is generally 128 kilobytes (KB) in size or smaller, although the Pentium 4 has an internal cache of 16 KB plus an internal Trace cache of 150 KB. The following diagram displays the relative relationship of the RAM memory and the components of the caches in the CPU body: RAM Memory: L2 Memory Cache* L1 Instruction Cache* Fetch Unit* Decode Unit* Execution Unit* L1 Memory Cache* The above components marked (*) run at the same rate as the internal CPU clock. The next cache in distance from the processor is the L2 cache. In older CPUs this was totally external to the processor. In most cases, the L2 cache is now integrated on the CPU chip. The data path in these processors is 256 bits wide allowing for the transfer of more bits per clock cycle than the older processors that had 64 or 128 bit paths. The data path between the CPU and the external RAM is usually 64 bits or 128 bits wide. In a system with an 800 MHz bus, the real clock rate is 200 MHz, but transfer occurs in 4 blocks per clock cycle. This gives an effective transfer rate of 800 MHz or 6.4 GB/second. Still considerably slower than the transfer rate within the CPU. The theory of using caches is that instructions and data in the cache will be the next set of information requested by the CPU for processing. If the requested information is in either the L1 or L2 cache, it will not be necessary to go to RAM. Thus it can be accessed at the internal clock rate. If it is present, it is referred to as a "hit"; otherwise it is a "miss". (Logical, right?) Now, the bigger the memory cache, the better the chances of finding the data required by the CPU. However, there is a catch to this. The bigger the cache, the more time that is required to find the data. This is referred to as the "latency" time. In an ideal setup you would have a single cache with a high hit rate and a low latency. This is very difficult to achieve in practice. Consequently, we have two caches, a small one with low latency and lower hit rate combined with a large cache with higher hit rate and high latency. Now that we've reviewed the architecture, we need to see how all this works. Let's start with the Fetch unit that is used to load information from memory on demand from the processor. It first checks the caches to see if the required instructions or data are there. If not, it will load the information from system RAM. This information is then passed to the Decode unit. Note that when I refer to information it can either be instructions or data. If the information is a program instruction, the Decode unit will figure out what that particular instruction does. It does that by consulting a ROM memory that exists inside the CPU called microcode. Each instruction that a given CPU understands has its own microcode. The microcode will "teach" the CPU what to do. It is like a step-by-step guide to every instruction. If the instruction loaded is, for example, add a+b, its microcode will tell the decode unit that it needs two parameters, a and b. The Decode unit will then request the Fetch unit to grab the data present in the next two memory positions, which fit the values for a and b. After the Decode unit has "translated" the instruction and grabbed all the data required to execute the instruction, it will pass the data and the "step-by-step cookbook" on how to execute that instruction to the Execute unit. There is an exception to this in the newest Pentium 4 processors. In these processors the L1 Instruction Cache has be relocated to after the Decode unit. It now contains the translated instructions and is referred to as the Trace cache. The Execute unit will finally execute the instruction. On modern CPUs you will find more than one execution unit working in parallel. This is done in order to increase the processor performance. For example, a Pentium 4 CPU with six execution units can execute six instructions per clock cycle. In theory it could achieve the same performance as six processors with just one execution unit. After the processing is over, the result is sent to the L1 Memory cache. From there it can be written to RAM or sent elsewhere. Modern processors have another feature called the "pipeline". This is the capability of having several different instructions at different stages of processing in the CPU at the same time. On Pentium III processors the pipeline was 11 stages - each a unit of the CPU. The latest Pentium 4 processors have 31 stages. With the greater number of stages, fewer transistors are required per stage, resulting in a higher clock rate. O.K, so what's the value of stages in the pipeline? After the Fetch unit sends an instruction for decoding, it grabs the next instruction. This can be sent on as soon as the first instruction is sent to the Execution unit. If an instruction has to be processed by all 11 (or 31) stages, it takes the most time, while other instructions might require fewer stages. Only when the first instruction is finished processing can it be sent out, but others that required processing by fewer stages might immediately follow. The consequence of this is that multiple instructions can be processed simultaneously. This greatly increases the overall processing throughput. Other caches found in computers are not associated with the processor. One such type of cache that you use frequently, probably without being aware of it, is the web page cache managed by your web browser. When you visit a web page, it is downloaded to your computer. If you visit that same page within a few days, your browser pulls the page from its temporary cache, compares it with the current page on the web server and updates only the changed portions. This speeds up the appearance of the page on your computer. For example, my home page is Yahoo.com. The major part of this page doesn't change from day to day, so the downloading of the page is limited to those parts that have actually changed. This allows the page to appear on my screen quite rapidly. So in CPU processing, the use of caches has greatly increased the speed of data handling. The same is true of caches used elsewhere in the computer. In all cases they are short-time storage of information. Luckily, you don't have to have a complete understanding of caches to use your computer. Let the computer do the work! Published monthly, k-Byte is the official newsletter of the Front Range Personal Computer Users Group (FRPCUG): our mailing address is PMB 152, 305 W. Magnolia, Fort Collins, Colorado 80521. Opinions expressed in k-Byte are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the group or its members. Publication of information in k-Byte constitutes no guarantee of accuracy. Use of any information found in this publication is at the sole risk of the user. Neither k-Byte, nor Front Range PC Users Group, nor the officers of Front Range PC Users Group, nor the editors of or contributors to k-Byte assume any liability for damages resulting from use of information in this publication. Submissions Articles, letters and short items of interest on computer-related topics are welcome and encouraged. All items submitted for publication are subject to editing. Send your contribution to the editor via e-mail attachment or submit on disk. If you have questions about a submission, please contact the editor for information. Copyright k-Byte is copyrighted ©2007 by the Front Range Personal Computer Users Group. Unless otherwise noted, other nonprofit users groups may reprint or quote from any articles appearing in k-Byte without prior permission, provided that proper author and publication credits are given and that a copy of the publication in which the article appears is sent at no cost to k-Byte at the above mailing address. User groups wishing to exchange newsletters with FRPCUG are invited to send a copy of their newsletter together with an exchange request. IBM PC, OS/2, Compaq, MS-DOS, UNIX, Windows and other trademarks occasionally mentioned in k-Byte are registered trademarks of International Business Machines, Inc., Compaq Corporation, Microsoft, Digital Research, AT&T or their owners respectively. Neither FRPCUG nor its newsletter k-Byte are connected in any way with any manufacturer or seller. Advertising Classified advertising is free to members for non-business ads. See "Trading Post" for pricing for camera-ready display ads. Charges for ad makeup from sketches, etc., are available on request. Deadline for camera-ready and classified ads is 45 days prior to the month of publication. For example, ads for the March newsletter must be submitted by January 15th. For pricing and schedules for ad design, connect to contact(at)frpcug.org. About FRPCUG FRPCUG is an independent nonprofit computer society, so incorporated with the State of Colorado and open to anyone interested in MS-DOS, Windows, or UNIX/LINUX microcomputers. Its purpose is to provide an educational and scientific forum of mutual benefit for members of the micro-computer community. FRPCUG holds a monthly meeting and conducts various special interest groups (SIGs) and seminars. Members have voting privileges, subscription to k-Byte newsletter, access to SIGs and selected seminars. Annual dues are $25 for individual/family membership ($20 for students) and $50 for corporate/group membership.  by Rob Rice, Computer Club of Oklahoma City, http://www.ccokc.org/emonitor/2007eMonitor/eMonitoMarch2007.pdf The phone conversation went something like this; "The computer screen keeps going black." "Do you mean the computer powers off, or, is it still running when the screen goes black?" "I'm not sure. I think it turns off." "Does it happen randomly or at a particular time?" "It seems to happen when I am on the Internet." There are certain types of computer hardware problems that are easy to diagnose and repair. Then there are those other problems the ones that have a string of parts thrown at them it until something works. In this case, a user's computer screen would loose its picture. In fact the computer was randomly turning itself off without warning. And this had been going on for almost a year! So, what is the culprit in a case like this? Loose or bad power cord? Damaged surge protector, broken fan; a virus maybe? The user was not comfortable opening the case but did anyway. All of the fans were running. Next, I had him check for any loose PCI cards as well as all of the above with no results. He said that he thought it happened when he was on the Internet. Bad modem perhaps? He replaced that too, no luck. I had a good hunch as to what the problem was, or, at lease where to look first, but sometimes, as in this case, a sensible systematic approach gets in the way. In any event, this was a case that could not be resolved over the phone. I told him what I thought the problem was. A deep groan could be heard. I was supposed to be on vacation, but being a "computer guy" I can never seem to get away from the PC. But this user was family, so no getting out of this one! When I arrived at the house I inspected the cords and the surge protector, wires and drive ribbons, it all looked good. Next, I sniffed the power supply's fan exhaust checking for anything that smelled like burnt wires or fried electronics - nothing. I turned the computer on. Everything looked good; video was perfect, so I ruled out a bad video card. The Power Options setting was correct as was the BIOS, everything ran normally - that is except for the antivirus program. Norton was not loading at start up. Trying to fix the antivirus failed, Norton was hopelessly corrupted. I suspected a virus was at work. Since the virus had overpowered it, I uninstalled Norton and downloaded Antivirus, a free antivirus that produces fair results. Running a scan resulted in two obscure viruses being found and deleted. Success! Just to be safe I ran Adaware. Nothing significant found there. I then ran SpyBot S&D. It was during the scanning of one particular file that it happened - black screen! The system had shut itself off without warning or any of the regular "Windows is shutting down" screens. It was just like someone had pulled the plug. What happened next is a classic example of where being rigidly focused on one problem caused the big problem to be missed. An attempt to turn the computer on failed. Press the button and nothing happens. But wait, after about a minute or two the system could be powered back on. Everything looked normal, plus the antivirus was running. Going back to SpyBot S&D, I ran it again with the same results, except that it would get passed the file it had previously shutdown on and then it would power off! The process was repeated at least two or three more times with the computer shutting down and waiting a period of time before being able to start it back up. A manual search through the registry and files failed to turn up any malicious software. A nagging in my gut told me that I was ignoring an important clue. The computer was using Windows XP Home Edition formatted in FAT 32, so it could run some ancient applications. I suggested we wipe the drive and reformat with NTFS. This would clean up his drives and hopefully anything that might be causing trouble. He agreed and relented that his old applications were no longer needed. Fortunately the drive sanitation and Windows's re-install went off without a hitch. Sixty-six Windows patches later and we were good to go. I ran SpyBot again. I anxiously waited. As it neared the end of its scan I thought perhaps I had nailed the culprit. Yet that nagging sensation that I had missed it would not go away. Then as SpyBot scanned the last of the files the computer died once more. Since SpyBot had almost made it all of the way through its scan, I decided to abandon the software approach and look more intently at the hardware. First up, replace the power supply. Now, that nagging feeling that I had been having from the beginning was thoroughly crushed under the jackboots of a systematic approach to the problem. I knew in my heart that the power supply was probably good. I trusted the brand and in my experience when a power supply is failing, it often hangs or reboots the computer rather than failing outright. I installed a new power supply with adequate wattage. Fifteen minutes later the computer shut down again. How about memory? I had never come across a bad memory module shutting a computer off but what the heck? I removed one of two memory modules and ran the computer. It died within twenty minutes while surfing the Web. Swapped out the modules and was greeted by similar results. It's not the memory. Probably a bad voltage regulator, the motherboard would have to be replaced. A quick stop to the computer store and eighty dollars later the motherboard was installed. I carefully made sure that no metal motherboard supports were touching anything they shouldn't and all of the wires were free of whirling fan blades and installed correctly. It was time to turn it on. Thirty seconds after starting up, it died and would not restart. Ah, a defective motherboard. Back to the computer store and an hour later I pushed the power button with the new motherboard installed. Success! The system ran for half an hour without a hiccup. It was then that the computer died for the last time. That nagging feeling hit me like teenager driving a Toyota. I had told the user in the beginning what I thought the problem was and then totally ignored it. I removed the processor's heat sink and looked at its underside. There was the answer and the embarrassment. I had seen this problem before. Where the heat sink had been making contact with the processor a ridge could be seen in the thermal pad*. The heat sink and CPU fan were making insufficient contact with the processor to properly cool it. The BIOS, sensing a temperature spike would shut the computer down to protect the processor. The temperature spike would come when the computer was doing something that was processor intensive, like run SpyBot or surf certain web pages. It could cool just enough so that if the processor was under a modest load, like running Adaware or Antivirus it could keep going. The manufacturer supplied heat sink and fan had a thermal pad that was incorrectly installed off center, causing the problem. I scraped off the thermal pad and put a thin coat of thermal paste on the underside of the heat sink. Putting it all back together I pushed the power button - nothing! It would not start. After almost a year of struggle the valiant little processor had computed its last bit. One more time back to the computer store and another eighty dollars for a new processor, I started the computer up and it has run fine ever since. I was embarrassed by ignoring my initial analysis. The processor was something that I should have checked early on and soon after checking the power cord, yet I had allowed myself to get swept downstream without thinking the problem through. That nagging that I had felt was a realization that my initial suspicions had practically been confirmed when it was clear that the computer would not turn back on until it had sat for two or three minutes. It was cooling off! But, being on vacation, I just wanted to get it fixed and fixed in a hurry. So, is there any good news? Yes, the problem is fixed and even with all of the money thrown at the problem, it still cost much less than a new computer-not to mention the user is now a happy user! *A special thermal paste that makes contact between the processor and heat sink and often installed as a small square pad by CPU manufacturers. April General Forum Meeting We will meet at the Fort Collins Senior Center on Tuesday, April 3rd 7:00 PM Meeting Agenda: 7:00 to 7:15 Announcements 7:15 to 8:00 Open Forum 8:00 to 8:15 Break 8:15 to 9:00 Internet Browsers and Plug-Ins May General Forum Meeting We will meet at the Fort Collins Senior Center on Tuesday, May 1st 7:00 PM Meeting Agenda: 7:00 to 7:15 Announcements 7:15 to 8:00 Open Forum 8:00 to 8:15 Break 8:15 to 9:00 The USB Interface and Portable Computing With The U3 Flash Drive See you at the meetings! Get full membership benefits. If you are not a current member, download an application from http://www.frpcug.org/memberap.htm Future General Forum Meeting Notes The topic for the April General Forum meeting is Internet Browsers and Plug-Ins. There is a surprising wealth of new features to learn about. FRPCUG members Charles McJilton and Rick Mattingly will make the presentation. BREAKING NEWS! Science fiction becomes science fact: flash drive replaces laptop. OK, OK, a little hyperbole in an attempt at humor. Attend the May General Forum meeting to get the serious facts on a new flash memory based product. The topic is: The USB Interface and Portable Computing With The U3 Flash Drive. The presentation will be provided by FRPCUG member Rick Mattingly. New Technology SIG The New Technology SIG provides advance support for all PC related operating system and telecommunication issues. The meetings are held at 7:00 PM on the third Thursday of each month at Bluebird Manufacturing Inc., 1421 Webster Avenue, in Fort Collins. For more information, contact Chuck McJilton at 970-493-2987. Board Meeting FRPCUG's executive board meets on Wednesday of the week following the General Forum meeting. All members are welcome and are encouraged to attend. These meetings are held at 7:00 PM in the Staff Board Room of the Fort Collins Senior Center. Directions to the Fort Collins Senior Center The Fort Collins Senior Center is located at 1200 Raintree Drive. This site is situated at the northwest corner of the Shields and Raintree Drive intersection, on the north side of the Raintree Shopping Center. Check the marquee at the main entrance for directions to the specific meeting room. See map on page 12. 3 FRPCUG General Forum Meeting 7:00 PM 11 FRPCUG Board Meeting 7:00 PM 19 New Technology SIG Meeting 7:00 PM May 2007 1 FRPCUG General Forum Meeting 7:00 PM 9 FRPCUG Board Meeting 7:00 PM 17 New Technology SIG Meeting 7:00 PM courtesy of Computer Club of Oklahoma City, http://www.ccokc.org/Tips/Tips2006.htm Ever find yourself looking to add captions to your pictures in MS Word? If you did a quick scan of the menus, you probably didn't run across anything that looked helpful, but if you take a deeper look into the submenus, you'll find that Word does have a caption feature. You just have to know where to look. To begin, you need to select the picture, table, equation, etc. that you want to caption. Now, go to the Insert menu, Reference submenu, Caption choice. The Caption window will open looking like this:  It's here that you can choose what type of label you need: Figure, Equation, Table or you can choose to create your own label with the New Label button. WARNING: this feature automatically numbers the label (you can alter how it numbers with the Numbering button) and you'll have to wait until you're back in your Word document to remove the number. You can also choose where the caption should be located relative to the object, so don't forget to make a selection in the Position field too. Click OK when you're done. You are returned to your document. courtesy of Big Bear Computer Club, http://www.bigbearcc.org/newsletters/march07.pdf PC World is selling its last floppy disks. The time has come to bid farewell to one of the PC's more stalwart friends-the floppy disk. Computing superstore PC World said it will no longer sell the storage devices, affectionately known as floppies, once existing stock runs out. New storage systems, coupled with a need to store more than the 1.44 megabytes of data held by a standard floppy, have led to its demise. Only a tiny percentage of PCs currently sold still have floppy disk drives. "The floppy disk looks increasingly quaint and simply isn't able to compete," said Bryan Magrath, commercial director of PC World. Iconic status. It is not the first time the death-knell for the floppy has been sounded. The first nail in the coffin came in 1998, when the iMac was revealed without a floppy disk drive. Then in 2003, Dell banished disk drives from its higher spec machines. FLOPPY FACTS: The original floppy disk held 100KB of data. The standard disk held 1.44 megabytes of data-equivalent to a three-minute song. In South Africa, floppy disks are commonly known as stiffies. Best-selling 12 inch Blue Monday was sold in a sleeve designed to look like a floppy disk. In 1998, an estimated 2 billion floppy disks were sold, according to the Recording Media Industries Association of Japan. Since then global demand has fallen by around two-thirds to an estimated 700 million by 2006. Only 2% of PCs and laptops currently sold by PC World still have built-in floppy disk drives and by the summer it will phase even these out. It is with mixed feelings that the computer store has decided call time on the floppy. "The sound of a computer's floppy disk drive will be as closely associated with 20th Century computing as the sound of a computer dialling into the internet," said Mr Magrath. But with computer users increasingly using the internet or USB memory sticks - some of which store 2,000 times the capacity of the floppy disk-to transfer data, it is becoming redundant. It is a far cry from its halcyon days in the 1980s and 1990s, when floppies provided essential back-up as well as playing a crucial role in transferring data and distributing software. Shrinking disk: The first floppy disk was introduced in 1971 by IBM and heralded as a revolutionary device. The brainchild of a group of Californian engineers led by Alan Shugart, it replaced old-fashioned punch-cards. An eight-inch plastic disk coated with magnetic iron oxide, the nickname "floppy" came from its flexibility. In 1976 the disk shrank to five-and-a-quarter inches-developed again by Alan Shugart, this time for Wang Laboratories. By 1981, Sony shrank it some more-this time to three-and-a-half inches-the standard used to this day. By the early 1990s, the growing complexity of software meant that many programs were distributed on sets of floppies. But the end of the decade saw software distribution swap to CD-ROM. Vista icon: Alternative backup formats, new storage such as the CD-RW and the arrival of mass internet access, consigned the floppy disk to the dusty corner of peoples' desks and, eventually, the bin. For those in the industry, there is little to mourn in the loss of floppy disks. "You can get so much more information on other forms of storage. Technology moves on," said Bryan Glick, editor of Computing.co.uk. But, he said, its demise, could prove problematic for those who have stored precious data on disk. "There will be shops where they can get the data transferred but it they still have the original data they would be advised to invest in a portable hard drive or put it online," he said. Interestingly, software giant Microsoft seems to be keeping the flame alight for the floppy. Its newly-released package Office 2007 still pays homage to it by continuing to use a floppy disk as the icon for saving a document in Microsoft Word 2007. [Ed. Note: For a very long time, the end of each k-Byte article has been indicated with a small image of a floppy disk. The article above is a reminder that it is time to replace this indicator with an image of a hard drive or a flash drive. If any FRPCUG member would like to submit an image for consideration, please email the image to contact(at)frpcug.org or to the Editor's email address listed in the Contacts on page 11. Remember, the image must be "public domain." That means it must not be copyrighted, and must be free of charge-free of both purchase cost and royalties. The image must also be recognizable when reduced to a size appropriate for the end-of-article designator].  Noncommercial Advertising k-Byte runs classified ads in Trading Post for three consecutive issues. Trading Post ads up to 10 lines (or 70 words) long are free to FRPCUG members and only $10 for non-members. To place an ad in Trading Post contact Rick Mattingly at 970-613-8968 or e-mail to rmatt(at)mesanetworks.net. Commercial Advertising Specifications (Per Issue) Full Page (8.5" x 11")*$50.00 Half Page (5.5" x 8.5")*$30.00 Quarter Page (4.25" x 5.5")*$20.00 Business Card (2" x 3.5")*$10.00 We offer a substantial discount for repeat ads and continuing contracts. For an additional charge we will design your ad for you. Contact Rick Mattingly for information on this service at 970-613-8968 or e-mail to rmatt(at)mesanetworks.net. *Allow for 0.5 inch margins   Source: http://www.mapquest.com |
| FRPCUG CONTACTS | ||||
| Telephone Area Code 970 | ||||
| FRPCUG Officers | Name | Work | Home | |
| President | Rick Mattingly | 613-8968 | rmatt(at)mesanetworks.net | |
| Vice President | Don Anderson | 498-3534 | 482-0943 | doande(at)gmail.com |
| Treasurer | Virginia Febinger | 498-2127 | gingercln(at)cs.com | |
| Secretary | Jim Bragonier | 484-9061 | james.bragonier(at)comcast.net | |
| k-Byte Staff | ||||
| Editor-in-Chief | Mike Morris | 461-2002 | twriterext(at)gmail.com | |
| Features Editor | Mike Morris | |||
| Advertising Coordinator | Open - We need a volunteer! | Contact Rick Mattingly in interim. | ||
| Other Contacts | ||||
| Membership Coordinator | Jack Linder | 663-2151 | jack(at)frpcug.org | |
| New Technology SIG | Chuck McJilton | 493-2987 | cdmcjs(at)gmail.com | |
| Door Prize Coordinator | John Goldey | 221-0877 | johngoldey(at)juno.com | |
| FRPCUG Fax Line | 493-1408 | |||
| FRPCUG Home Page w/E-Mail | http://www.frpcug.org | |||
| FRPCUG Officer E-Mail | contact(at)frpcug.org | |||
| Membership in the Front Range PC Users Group is $25 per year for individuals and $50 per year for companies. | ||||
| Mail your completed application and payment to: | ||||
| FRPCUG | ||||
| PMB 152 | ||||
| 305 W. Magnolia | ||||
| Fort Collins CO 80521 | ||||
| or join in person at the monthly meeting on the first Tuesday of each month. | ||||
